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Per Henrik Ling in Sweden elaborated methods of gymnastic exercise that had been finally adopted by school systems in Britain, the United States, and Japan. These noncompetitive options to fashionable sports activities also flourished in eastern Europe in the course of the late 19th and early twentieth centuries. Among repressed ethnic peoples such as the Poles and Czechs, gymnastics turned almost a way of life. For them, gymnastic festivals have been grand events at which tens of hundreds of disciplined women and men demonstrated nationalistic fervour. In 1988, for instance, the German Democratic Republic , with a population of some…